L Aglabidi bl Għarbi الأغالبة kienu nisel mid dinastija Għarbija tat tribù ta Banu Tamim li ħakmet l Ifriqiya u partijie

L-Aglabidi (bl-Għarbi: الأغالبة) kienu nisel mid-dinastija Għarbija tat-tribù ta' Banu Tamim, li ħakmet l-Ifriqiya u partijiet tan-Nofsinhar tal-Italja, Sqallija, u possibbilment , nominalment f'isem il-Kaliff Abbasid, għal madwar seklu, sakemm ġew megħluba mill-Fatimidi.

Storja

Indipendenza u konsolidazzjoni

Fit-800, il-Kaliff Abbasid Harun al-Rashid ħatar lil Ibrahim I ibn al-Aglab, iben kmandant Għarbi Khurasanjan mit-tribù Banu Tamim, bħala l-emir ereditarju ta' Ifriqiya, bi tweġiba għall-anarkija li kienet qed taħkem f'dik il-provinċja wara l-waqgħa tal-Muħallabidi. Dak iż-żmien forsi kien hemm 100,000 Għarbi jgħixu fl-Ifriqiya, għalkemm il-Berberi (Imażigħeni) kienu għadhom bil-bosta fil-maġġoranza.

Ibrahim kellu jikkontrolla żona li kienet tinkludi dik li llum huwa l-Lvant tal-Alġerija, it-Tuneżija u t-Tripolitanja. Għalkemm indipendenti f'kollox ħlief fl-isem, id-dinastija tiegħu qatt ma waqfet tirrikonoxxi s-setgħa Abbasida. L-Aglabidi ħallsu tariffa annwali lill-Kaliff Abbasid u s-suzeranità tagħhom kienet referenzjata fil-khutba fit-talb tal-Ġimgħa.

Wara li ġiet restawrata l-paċi fil-pajjiż, Ibrahim ibn al-Aglab stabbilixxa residenza f'kapitali ġdida, al-Abbasiyya, stabbilita barra Kairouan fit-800 li kienet inbniet bejn it-801 u t-810. Dan sar parzjalment biex jitbiegħed mill-oppożizzjoni tal-ġuristi u t-teologi Malikite, li kkundannaw il-ħajja lussuża tal-Aglabidi. Għandu jingħad li l-Aglabidi kienu mu'tażiliti fit-teoloġija, u Hanafi fil-fiqh-ġurisprudenza, u l-istess ġuristi u t-teologi jsemmu t-trattament mhux ugwali tal-Berberi Musulmani. Barra minn hekk, ġew stabbiliti difiżi tal-fruntieri fil-forma ta' ribati, inkluż fi bliet kostali bħal (Susa) u . L-Aglabidi bnew ukoll is-sitema ta' irrigazzjoni taż-żona u tejbu l-bini pubbliku u l-moskej ta' Ifriqija. L-iskjavi nkisbu permezz tal-kummerċ trans-Saħarjan, permezz tal-kummerċ fil-Mediterran, u minn razez fuq artijiet oħra bħal Sqallija u l-Italja.

L-armata Aglabida kienet komposta minn żewġ elementi ewlenin. L-ewwel kien il-jund, jew truppi Għarab imnisslin mit-tribujiet Għarab li kienu pparteċipaw fil-konkwisti bikrija tal-Musulmani tat-Tramuntana tal-Afrika. Il-komponent l-ieħor tal-armata ġie reklutat mill-iskjavi, maħluq parzjalment biex jikkontrobilanċja l-qawwa tal-jund. Ġie dokumentat li 5,000 skjav iswed Zanj kienu stazzjonati f'Abbasiya bħala parti mill-gwarniġjon tal-post. Taħt Ziyadat Allah I (li rrenja mit-817 sat-838) seħħet rewwixta tat-truppi Għarab (il-jund) fit-824, l-aħħar iżda l-aktar episodju serju ta' konfrontazzjoni bejniethom u l-emiri Aglabidi. Ir-ribelljoni kienet immexxija minn kmandant jismu Mansur ibn Nasr al-Tunbudhi, li kellu fortizza qrib Tuneż. Sa Settembru 824 ir-ribelli kienu okkupaw Tuneż u Kairouan, iżda l-Aglabidi rnexxielhom iwarrbuhom minn Kairouan xahar wara u qatlu lil Mansur. Kap ieħor, Amir ibn Nafi', ħa f'idejh it-tmexxija tar-ribelli u kkaġuna telfa severa lill-forzi ta' Ziyadat Allah. Eventwalment, l-emir seta' jikseb il-vantaġġ bl-għajnuna tal-Berberi Ibaditi tar-reġjun ta' Nafwaza u fl-aħħar għeleb ir-ribelljoni fit-827.

Fit-838/839 (224 AH) il-provinċja fil-Lbiċ ta' Qastiliya (ir-reġjun ta' Djerid ), fil-biċċa l-kbira abitata minn Musulmani Ibadi, irribellaw. Dan wassal biex l-Aglabidi jerġgħu jaqbdu lil Tozeur, il-belt ewlenija tagħha, f'dik l-istess sena.

Konkwista ta' Sqallija

Fit-827, ftit wara li Ziyadat Allah għeleb ir-ribelljoni, bdiet il-konkwista Aglabida ta' Sqallija. Asad ibn al-Furat, qadi minn Kairouan, inħatar kmandant tal-forzi Aglabidi. Il-pretensjoni għal din l-invażjoni kienet rewwixta interna fi Sqallija Biżantina mmexxija minn kmandant militari jismu li talab appoġġ mill-Aglabidi.

Minkejja d-differenzi politiċi u r-rivalità bejn l-Aglabidi li servew taħt il-Kaliffat Abbasid u l-Emirat Umajjad ta' Cordoba, il-Musulmani ta' Andalus (fil-Peniżola Iberika) bagħtu wkoll flotta taħt biex jgħinu fil-konkwista Aglabida ta' Sqallija. jikteb li forza konġunta ta' 300 vapur Umajjad u Aglabid kienu preżenti. Il-gwarniġjon Aglabid f'Mineo rnexxielu jidħol f'kuntatt mal-Umajjad minn Andalus, li immedjatament qablu mal-alleanza, bil-kundizzjoni li Asba' jiġi rikonoxxut bħala l-kmandant ġenerali, u flimkien ma' truppi ġodda minn Ifriqiya, mexew fuq Mineo. irtira lejn Enna u l-assedju ta' Mineo spiċċa f'Lulju jew f'Awwissu 830. L-armata mill-Ifriqiya u Andalusjana magħquda mbagħad ħarqet lil Mineo u assedjaw belt oħra, possibbilment Calloniana (illum Barrafranca). Iżda, ġara li faqqgħet pesta fil-kamp tagħhom li kkaġunat il-mewt ta' Asba' u ħafna oħrajn. Il-belt waqgħet aktar tard, fil-ħarifa, iżda n-numri tal-Għarab naqsu sal-punt li kienu mġiegħla jabbandunawha u jirtiraw lejn il-Punent. Teodotus ordna insegwiment u nqatlu ħafna mill-ġellieda, u minn hemm 'il quddiem, ħafna mill-Andalusjani telqu mill-gżira. Madankollu, Teodotus inqatel wkoll f'dan iż-żmien, possibbilment f'waħda minn dawn il-ġlidiet.

Il-konkwista ta' Sqallija kompliet miexja bil-mod u b'pass irregolari, bejn wieħed u ieħor mill-Punent għal-Lvant permezz ta' kampanji multipli tul bosta snin. Palermo kienet maħkuma fit-831 u saret il-kapitali tal-ħakma Musulmana fuq il-gżira u l-bażi għal aktar konkwisti. Messina ġiet assedjata u maqbuda fit-842 jew fit-843, possibbilment bl-appoġġ ta' xi Naplitani, u saret bażi għal kampanji militari ulterjuri fl-artijiet Taljani. Siracusa nqabdet fit-878. Il-konkwista tal-gżira ma tlestietx għalkollox qabel id-902, meta ġiet maħkuma. Anke wara dan, madankollu, xi rqajja' tar-reżistenza lokali Biżantina/Kristjana komplew sad-967, ħafna wara li d-dinastija Aglabida kienet intemmet.

Peniżola Taljana

Waqt li l-konkwista ta' Sqallija kienet għadha għaddejja, l-Aglabidi bdew jagħmlu attakki fuq il-kontinent Taljan. L-invażjonijiet tagħhom ta' Calabria u Puglia, kif ukoll l-attakki tagħhom fuq gżejjer ċentrali oħra tal-Mediterran, probabbilment saru bħala estensjoni tal-konkwista tagħhom ta' Sqallija, bil-għan li jgħinu lil dawn tal-aħħar billi jattakkaw pożizzjonijiet Biżantini oħra fir-reġjun. L-ewwel spedizzjonijiet kbar lejn il-peniżola saru bejn it-835 u t-843. ttieħdet fit-839 jew fit-846 u ġiet okkupata sat-886, meta l-Biżantini reġgħu ħaduha. ttieħed fit-840 u baqgħet okkupata sat-880. Bari nqabdet mill-Musulmani fit-840 jew fit-847. Ruma ġiet attakkata minn forza Musulmana fit-846, għalkemm mhux ċert li l-attakkanti ġew minn territorju Aglabid. Attakk ieħor fuq Ruma seħħ fit-849, li wassal għal battalja navali kbira qrib Ostia li matulha nqerdet flotta ta' vapuri Musulmani, li mmarkat waqfien tal-avvanz Musulman fil-peniżola.

Ħafna mill-forzi Musulmani li ħadu parti fl-operazzjonijiet fuq il-peniżola jew okkupaw xi wħud mill-bliet tagħha jidhru li kellhom biss lealtà żgħira għad-dinastija Aglabida. Xi merċenarji Musulmani saħansitra daħlu fis-servizz ta' Napli jew ħakkiema lokali Lombardi f'diversi okkażjonijiet. L-ewwel okkupanti Musulmani ta' Bari, pereżempju, jidhru li servew bħala merċenarji ta' ta' . L-Emirat ta' Bari, li kien jeżisti mit-847 sat-871, kellu l-ħakkiema tiegħu stess, u r-relazzjonijiet tagħhom mal-Aglabidi mhumiex magħrufa b'mod ċar.

Malta, Sardenja u Korsika

F'inħawi oħra fiċ-ċentru tal-Mediterran, l-Aglabidi rebħu l-gżira ta' Malta fit-870. Huma attakkaw ukoll lil Sardenja u lil Korsika. Xi referenzi moderni jgħidu li Sardenja ġiet taħt il-kontroll Aglabid madwar it-810 jew wara l-bidu tal-konkwista ta' Sqallija fit-827 L-istoriku jargumenta li l-gżira ta' Sardenja ospitat preżenza Musulmana matul il-perjodu Aglabid, possibbilment limitata tul il-kosti li koeżistiet mal-forza tal-gvern Biżantin lokali. L-istoriku jargumenta li l-evidenza disponibbli għal kwalunkwe okkupazzjoni Musulmana jew kolonizzazzjoni tal-gżira matul dan il-perjodu hija limitata u inkonklużiva, u li l-attakki Musulmani kienu limitati. Skont , il-biċċa l-kbira tal-istoriċi u l-arkeologi ta' Sardenja li qed jistudjaw dan il-perjodu tal-istorja tal-gżira waslu għall-istess konklużjoni, u ċaħdu li seħħet konkwista u okkupazzjoni Musulmana ta' Sardenja, minħabba evidenza insuffiċjenti ta' sostenn mill-arkeoloġija u r-rekords storiċi lokali.

Mexxejja Aglabidi

Ibrahim I ibn al-Aghlab ibn Salim (800–812)
Abdallah I ibn Ibrahim (812–817)
Ziyadat Allah I ibn Ibrahim (817–838)
al-Aghlab Abu Iqal ibn Ibrahim (838–841)
Abu 'l-Abbas Muhammad I ibn al-Aghlab Abi Affan (841–856)
Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Aghlabi (856–863)
Ziyadat Allah II ibn Abil-Abbas (863)
Abu 'l-Gharaniq Muhammad II ibn Ahmad (863–875)
Abu Ishaq Ibrahim II ibn Ahmad (875–902)
Abu 'l-Abbas Abdallah II ibn Ibrahim (902–903)
Abu Mudhar Ziyadat Allah III ibn Abdallah (903–909)

Referenzi

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^ Julien, Histoire de L'Afrique du Nord (Paris: Payor 1931; revised by de Tourneau 1952), translated as History of North Africa (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1970; New York: Praeger 1970) at 42.
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^ Metcalfe, Alex (2021). "Early Muslim Raids on Byzantine Sardinia". The Making of Medieval Sardinia (bl-Ingliż). Brill. pp. 126–159. ISBN 978-90-04-46754-5.
^ Nef, Annliese (2018). "Reinterpreting the Aghlabids' Sicilian Policy (827–910)". The Aghlabids and Their Neighbors: Art and Material Culture in Ninth-Century North Africa (bl-Ingliż). Brill. pp. 76–87. ISBN 978-90-04-35566-8.
^ El Hareir, Mbaye, Idris, Ravane (2011). The Spread of Islam Throughout the World. UNESCO. p. 441. ISBN 978-9231041532.
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^ Bondioli, Lorenzo M. (2018). "Islamic Bari between the Aghlabids and the Two Empires". The Aghlabids and Their Neighbors: Art and Material Culture in Ninth-Century North Africa (bl-Ingliż). Brill. pp. 470–490. ISBN 978-90-04-35566-8.
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^ Davis-Secord, Sarah (2017). Where Three Worlds Met: Sicily in the Early Medieval Mediterranean (bl-Ingliż). Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-1258-6.
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[1] The Aghlabids and their neighbors: art and material culture in ninth-century North Africa. Handbuch der orientalistik. Leiden Boston: Brill. 2018.

[:7-2] Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1996). "The Aghlabids". The New Islamic Dynasties (bl-Ingliż). Columbia University Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-231-10714-3.

[:1723-3] Kennedy, Hugh (2018). "The Origins of the Aghlabids". The Aghlabids and Their Neighbors: Art and Material Culture in Ninth-Century North Africa (bl-Ingliż). Brill. p. 34. ISBN 978-90-04-35566-8.

[4] Julien, Histoire de L'Afrique du Nord (Paris: Payor 1931; revised by de Tourneau 1952), translated as History of North Africa (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1970; New York: Praeger 1970) at 42.

[gold79-5] Goldschmidt, Arthur (2002). A concise history of the Middle East. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. pp. 79. ISBN 0-8133-3885-9.

[6] Laroui, Abdallah (1977). The History of the Maghrib: An Interpretive Essay (bl-Ingliż). Princeton University Press. p. 116. ISBN 978-1-4008-6998-5.

[:17-7] Fenwick, Corisande; Rosser-Owen, Mariam, ed. (2018). "Introduction". The Aghlabids and Their Neighbors: Art and Material Culture in Ninth-Century North Africa (bl-Ingliż). Brill. pp. 2–3, 18. ISBN 978-90-04-35566-8. Nieqes |editor1= (għajnuna)

[:6-8] ċ ^d Lev, Yaacov (1991). State and Society in Fatimid Egypt (Volume 1 dari Arab history and civilization. Studies and texts: 0925–2908 ed.). Brill. pp. 4–5. ISBN 9004093443.

[:172-9] Kennedy, Hugh (2018). "The Origins of the Aghlabids". The Aghlabids and Their Neighbors: Art and Material Culture in Ninth-Century North Africa (bl-Ingliż). Brill. p. 47. ISBN 978-90-04-35566-8.

[:152-10] Abun-Nasr, Jamil (1987). A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521337674.

[11] (bil-Franċiż): 75–90. Ċitazzjoni journal għandha bżonn |journal= (għajnuna); |title= nieqes jew vojt (għajnuna)

[:0522-12] Metcalfe, Alex (2021). "Italy, Islam in premodern". Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three. Brill. 1873-9830.

[:4-13] Metcalfe, Alex (2021). "Early Muslim Raids on Byzantine Sardinia". The Making of Medieval Sardinia (bl-Ingliż). Brill. pp. 126–159. ISBN 978-90-04-46754-5.

[:12-14] Nef, Annliese (2018). "Reinterpreting the Aghlabids' Sicilian Policy (827–910)". The Aghlabids and Their Neighbors: Art and Material Culture in Ninth-Century North Africa (bl-Ingliż). Brill. pp. 76–87. ISBN 978-90-04-35566-8.

[15] El Hareir, Mbaye, Idris, Ravane (2011). The Spread of Islam Throughout the World. UNESCO. p. 441. ISBN 978-9231041532.

[Bury304-16] Bury (1912), p. 304

[17] Treadgold (1988), pp. 273–274

[18] Vasiliev (1935), pp. 127–128

[19] Treadgold (1988), p. 274

[20] Vasiliev (1935), pp. 128–129

[:05223-21] Metcalfe, Alex (2021). "Italy, Islam in premodern". Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three. Brill. 1873-9830.

[:23-22] ċ ^d Davis-Secord, Sarah (2017). Where Three Worlds Met: Sicily in the Early Medieval Mediterranean (bl-Ingliż). Cornell University Press. pp. 77, 535. ISBN 978-1-5017-1258-6.

[:13-23] Bondioli, Lorenzo M. (2018). "Islamic Bari between the Aghlabids and the Two Empires". The Aghlabids and Their Neighbors: Art and Material Culture in Ninth-Century North Africa (bl-Ingliż). Brill. pp. 470–490. ISBN 978-90-04-35566-8.

[:3-24] Kreutz, Barbara M. (1991). Before the Normans: Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries (bl-Ingliż). University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-0543-5.

[25] Kleinhenz, Christopher (2017). "Messina". Routledge Revivals: Medieval Italy (2004): An Encyclopedia –Volume II (bl-Ingliż). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-66442-4.

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[38] Goodwin, Stefan (2002). Malta, Mediterranean Bridge (bl-Ingliż). Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-89789-820-1.

[39] Lea, David; Rowe, Annamarie (2001). A Political Chronology of Africa (bl-Ingliż). Taylor & Francis. p. 437. ISBN 978-1-85743-116-2.

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[42] Raspi, Raimondo Carta (1985). Storia della Sardegna (bit-Taljan). Mursia. 462998915.

[43] Casula, Francesco Cesare (1994). Storia di Sardegna (bit-Taljan). II. Sassari: Carlo Delfino editore. ISBN 978-8871380636. 32106130.

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[46] Lisai, Gianmichele; Maccioni, Antonio (2021). "Tra Arabi e Giudici". Breve storia della Sardegna (bit-Taljan). Newton Compton Editori. ISBN 978-88-227-5453-0.

[47] Casula, Francesco Cesare (2001). "incursioni musulmane". DI.STO.SA. – Dizionario storico sardo (bit-Taljan). Sassari: Carlo Delfino editore. p. 773. ISBN 88-7138-241-2. 51336468. In Sardegna non si ebbero invasioni musulmane dirette ad impossessarsi dell'isola se non quella unica di Mugiâhid al-Amiri, wali (=principe) di Denia e delle Baleari, del 1015–16, avente però lo scopo di farne una testa di ponte per assalire ed occupare la Toscana e il continente italiano.